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　　Teaching children to read well from the start is the most important task of elementary schools．But relying on educators to approach this task correctly can be a great mistake．Many schools continue to employ instructional methods that have been proven ineffective．The staying power of the “look-say” or “whole-word” method of teaching beginning reading is perhaps the most flagrant example of this failure to instruct effectively．

　　The whole-word approach to reading stresses the meaning of words over the meaning of letters, thinking over decoding, developing a sight vocabulary of familiar words over developing the ability to unlock the pronunciation of unfamiliar words．It fits in with the self-directed, “learning how to learn” activities recommended by advocates(倡导者)of “open” classrooms and with the concept that children have to be developmentally ready to begin reading．Before 1963, no major publisher put out anything but these “Run-Spot-Run” readers．

　　However, in 1955, Rudolf Flesch touched off what has been called “the great debate” in beginning reading．In his best-seller Why Johnny Can’t Read, Flesch indicted(控诉)the nation’s public schools for miseducating students by using the look-say method．He said－ and more scholarly studies by Jeane Chall and Rovert Dykstra later confirmed－that another approach to beginning reading, founded on phonics(语音学), is far superior．

　　Systematic phonics first teachers children to associate letters and letter combinations with sounds; it then teaches them how to blend these sounds together to make words．Rather than building up a relatively limited vocabulary of memorized words, it imparts a code by which the pronunciations of the vast majority of the most common words in the English language can be learned．Phonics does not devalue the importance of thinking about the meaning of words and sentences; it simply recognizes that decoding is the logical and necessary first step．

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　　Surprisingly, no one knows how many children receive education in English hospitals, still less the content or quality of that education．Proper records are just not kept．We know that more than 850 000 children go through hospital each year, and that every child of school age has a legal right to continue to receive education while in hospital．We also know there is only one hospital teacher to every 1000 children in hospital．

　　Little wonder the latest survey concludes that the extent and type of hospital teaching available differ a great deal across the country．It is found that half the hospitals in England which admit children have no teacher．A further quarter have only a part-time teacher．The special children’s hospitals in major cities do best; general hospitals in the country and holiday areas are worst off．From this survey, one can estimate that fewer than one in five children have some contact with a hospital teacher－and that contact may be as little as two hours a day．Most children interviewed were surprised to find a teacher in hospital at all．They had not been prepared for it by parents or their own school．If there was a teacher they were much more likely to read books and do math or number work; without a teacher they would only play games．

　　Reasons for hospital teaching range from preventing a child falling behind and maintaining the habit of school to keeping a child occupied, and the latter is of ten all the teacher can do．The position and influence of many teachers was summed up when parents referred to them as “the library lady” or just “the helper”．Children tend to rely on concerned school friends to keep in touch with school work．Several parents spoke of requests for work being ignored or refused by the school．Once back at school children rarely get extra teaching, and are told to catch up as best as they can．

　　Many short-stay child-patients catch up quickly．But schools do very little to ease the anxiety about falling behind expressed by many of the children interviewed．

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　　An ichthyologist is a scientist who studies fish．Most people who do this job say they love their work because it is very rewarding and varied．They work not only inside a laboratory, but also out in the field．Fieldwork includes traveling to rivers, oceans and lakes in order to collect information and specimens(样本)．Reading, writing and speaking are also very important to the job．Fish scientists need to read the research of other scientists．They must be able to write up their own research clearly so that others can follow it．They also need to be able to give lectures about their findings, so that they can spread knowledge．

　　Ichthyologists who wish to specialize can choose any one of three areas of study．The first area is aquaculture(水产养殖)．This involves the study and practice of fish farming and management．Because it is a rather new study, there are very few job opportunities available．However, as there is so much to discover, many see it as an exciting area for a new ichthyologist to enter．The second area is fisheries science, which means working with a team of scientist to find out more about different fish species．The third area is about the protection of natural fish populations．This is very important today, given that many fish species are in danger of dying out because of the actions of humans．

　　To become a successful fish scientist, you need to have a curious mind and be able to work on your own．You also need to be able to handle equipment and perform experiments; but most importantly, you must love fish．To become an ichthyologist, you will need to train at a university to pass a Bachelor of Science degree．For this, you will need to be good at mathematics, physical science and biology．Then, you will need to study for another year to complete an honors degree in ichthyology．This honors degree contains coursework about all aspects of fish．You also need to complete a research paper．

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　　There seems never to have been a civilization without toys, but when and how they developed is unknown．They probably came about just to give children something to do．

　　In the ancient world, as is today, most boys played with some kinds of toys and most girls with another．In societies where social roles are rigidly determined, boys pattern their play after the activities of their fathers and girls are being prepared, even in play, to step into the roles and responsibilities of the adult world．

　　What is remarkable about the history of toys is not so much how they changed over the centuries but how much they have remained the same．The changes have been mostly in terms of craftsmanship, mechanics, and technology．It is the universality of toys with regard to their development in all parts of the world and their persistence to the present that is amazing．In Egypt, America, China, Japan and among the Arctic(北极的)people, generally the same kinds of toys appeared．Variations depended on local customs and way of life because toys imitate their surrounding．Nearly every civilization had dolls, little weapons, toy soldiers, tiny animals and vehicles．

　　Because toys can be generally regarded as a kind of art form, they have not been subject to technological leaps that characterize inventions for adult use．The progress from the wheel to the cart to the automobile is a direct line of ascent(进步)．The progress from a rattle(拨浪鼓)used by a baby in 3000 BC to one used by an infant today, however, is not characterized by inventiveness．Each rattle is the product of the artistic tastes of the times and subject to the limitations of available materials．

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　　If you are a recent social science graduate who has had to listen to jokes about unemployment from your computer major classmates, you may have had the last laugh．There are many advantages for the social science major because this high-tech “Information Age” demands people who are flexible(灵活的)and who have good communication skills．

　　There are many social science majors in large companies who fill important positions．For example, a number of research studies found that social science majors had achieved greater managerial success than those who had technical training or pre-professional courses．Studies show that social science majors are most suited for change, which is the leading feature(特点)of the kind of high speed, high-pressure, high-tech world we now live in．

　　Social science majors are not only experiencing success in their long-term company jobs, but they are also finding jobs more easily．A study showed that many companies had filled a large percentage of their entry-level positions with social science graduates．The study also showed that the most sought－after quality in a person who was looking for a job was communication skills, noted as “very important” by 92 percent of the companies．Social science majors have these skills, often without knowing how important they are．It is probably due to these skills that they have been offered a wide variety of positions．

　　Finally, although some social science majors may still find it more difficult than their technically trained classmates to land the first job, recent graduates report that they don’t regret their choice of study．

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　　More and more, the operations of our businesses, governments, and financial institutions are controlled by information that exists only inside computer memories．Anyone clever enough to modify this information for his own purposes can reap big reward．Even worse, a number of people who have done this and been caught at it have managed to get away without punishment．

　　It’s easy for computer crimes to go undetected if no one checks up on what the computer is doing．But even if the crime is detected, the criminal may walk away not only unpunished but with a glowing recommendation from his former employers．

　　Of course, we have no statistics on crimes that go undetected．But it’s disturbing to note how many of the crimes we do know about were detected by accident, not by systematic inspections or other security procedures．The computer criminals who have been caught may have been the victims of uncommonly bad luck．

　　Unlike other lawbreakers, who must leave the country, commit suicide, or go to jail, computer criminals sometimes escape punishment, demanding not only that they not be charged but that they be given good recommendations and perhaps other benefits．All too often, their demands have been met．

　　Why?Because company executives are afraid of the bad publicity that would result if the public found out that their computer had been misused．They hesitate at the thought of a criminal boasting in open court of how he juggled(诈骗)the most confidential(保密)records right under the noses of the company’s executives, accountants, and security staff．And so another computer criminal departs with just the recommendations he needs to continue his crimes elsewhere．

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　　For years and years people have been saying that the railways are dead．“We can do without railways，”people say, as if motorcars and planes made the railways unnecessary．We all keep hearing that trains are slow, that they lose money, that they’re dying．But this is far from the truth．In these days of expensive oil, the railways have become highly competitive with motorcars and planes．If you want to carry people or goods from place to place, they’re cheaper than planes．

　　And they have much in common with planes．A plane goes in a strange line and so does a railway．What is more, it takes you from the heart of a city into the heart of another．It doesn’t leave you as a plane does, miles and miles from the city center．It doesn’t hold you up as a car does, in endless traffic jams．And a single train can carry goods which no plane or motorcar could ever do．

　　Far from being dead, the railways are very much alive．Modern railway lines give you a smooth, untroubled journey．Where else can you eat well, sleep in comfort, feel safe and enjoy the scene while you are traveling at speed at the same time?And we are only at the beginning．For we have just entered the age of super-fast trains, traveling at 150 miles an hour and more．Soon we will be wondering why we spent so much on motorways we can’t use because we have not enough money to buy the oil and planes we can’t fly in for the same reason．

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　　The time you spend at the office may be the most stressful(紧张的)part of your day, but it doesn’t have to be．You have a greater ability to shape your office environment than you may realize．

　　Take breaks throughout the day．It will help clear your mind and relieve pressure．Something as simple as going to the water cooler for a drink may do the trick．

　　Take part in a noontime or an after-work exercise class．This will give you a chance to relax and a way to relieve stress．

　　To help your workday go smoothly, try arranging your activities：Do more demanding work in the morning, when your energy level is higher, and easier work later in the day, when you may be tired．

　　Try listening to music recordings, such as a pounding surf or songbirds, to help you relax．Such tapes are sold in many shops．Use headphones if you are listening to them in the middle of the workday．

　　Get to work early or stay late once a week．You may be able to complete more when you change your daily work．

　　If your stress comes from job insecurity, take stock of yourself．Renew your knowledge, and remind yourself of your skills and strengths．Also, make sure you keep up with new developments in your fields．This will make you valuable to employers．

　　Don’t let rumors(谣言)at work, which are usually false, cause you worry．A co-worker may just be thinking out loud about worst-case imagined events．?

　　If your office is less structured(or if you are the boss), consider a company mascot(吉祥物)．A cat or dog can do wonders for workers’ morale．

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　　Rome－Doctors and medical groups around the world last weekend reacted with strong opposition(反对)to the news that an Italian specialist is on the brink of cloning the first human baby．

　　Dr．Severino Antinori, who is the head of a hospital in Rome, has been referred to in an Arab newspaper as claiming(声称)that one of his patients is eight weeks pregnant(怀孕)with a cloned baby．

　　Antinori refused to comment on the reports, but in March 2001 he said he hoped to produce a cloned embryo(卵)for implantation within two years．So far seven different kinds of mammals have already successfully cloned, including sheep, cats and most recently rabbits．

　　Doctors showed their doubt and were strongly opposed although they admitted that human cloning would finally come true unless there was a worldwide ban on the practice．

　　Professor Rudolf Janise, head of the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology said：“I find it astonishing that people do this where the result can be foretold that it will not be a normal baby．It is using humans as guinea pigs．It makes people feel sick．”

　　But Ronald Green, director of the Ethics Institute at Darmouth College in the US, said it is unlikely that an eight-week-old pregnancy would lead to a birth．

　　So far all cloned animals have suffered from some different serious disorders, many of them dying soon after their births．

　　Doctors are opposed to human cloning because they are worried about the welfare of the cloned child if there is one．

　　“There are no benefits of cloned human beings, just harm, ”said Dr Michael Wilks of the UK．